Remediation Nation

I'll begin with a small connection between this week and last week's readings:

D.F. McKenzie notes that "the book, in all its forms, enters history only as an evidence of human behavior, and it remains active only in the service of human needs" (McKenzie 223).  This is not the only moment within his article that McKenzie makes reference to the impact that society has on the form of the book/the substance of bibliography.  Immediately I am reminded of last week's debate between Adams/Barker and Darnton.  Obviously, this issue is worth a continued conversation as we (I) gain more knowledge about all of the varied perspectives on bibliography/book history and its maturation, evolution, and fluctuation.

On the subject of fluctuation, McKenzie's text (published in 1999) reminded me of Bolter and Grusin's Remediation (2000) - one passage in particular from the introduction, "No medium today, and certainly no single media event, seems to do its cultural work in isolation from other media, any more than it works in isolation from other social and economic forces" (Bolter, Grusin 15).  Because I just checked, McKenzie is not referenced anywhere in Remediation - nor did I expect him to be - but what's of interest is the insight into the scholarly conversation that spans two disciplines/research interests so closely related and yet far enough apart that they do not touch one another's work.  What's more, Bolter and Grusin spend very little time discussing books/manuscripts in their text and at many points it seems that the book (as form) is almost assumed to be part of this expansive history of remediated forms (especially as they themselves work to remediate it by adding "hyperlinks" throughout the text).

Ultimately, I have to say that I am completely taken by any perspective on media that encourages and upholds its flexibility and the astounding impact that society has on form.  I have always been drawn to (what appear to be) wild claims about the nature of media - it's what lured me in to graduate study.  And even I will admit that the distinction between "bibliography" and "book history" seemed acceptable to me until reading McKenzie's take on the matter - now I just want to see everything as ephemeral and malleable all at once! I kid - an "lol," if you will.

I pose a question for those who might care to offer their take: Quite frankly, what are the implications of losing/stretching "forms" so much so that the entire notion is distorted?  We have touched on this before, but with the new readings added to our knowledge-base this week, what would we stand to gain (if anything) from a purist (for lack of a better term) position on the form of a book? Interpret this so-called "purist" position however you may, I wonder what the affordances are of a perspective that draws a proverbial line in the sand between book and, well, "everything else."

Two unrelated things:

1) I made other observations this week that I'm not too interested in writing about here, but I'll mention them to see if anyone else thought of this, too:  While reading Chartier's account of the resistance to reading/writing as being part of an intellectual culture, was anyone else reminded of Obama's election and the months leading up to it? I recall *so much* anti-intellectualism growing around the country and becoming a large conversation in the political landscape at that time - perhaps even more so with certain Tea Party speeches I've heard, as well.

2) The historical account of "silent reading" and the attitudes toward is reminiscent (to me) of the anxieties that people express over computers/texting/online networking - that we are no longer communal due to these technologies.  Silent reading as a technology (because I don't think it was really the book itself)?  Fascinating.

"Much reading is an oppression of the mind" (167).

"If you spent so much time on Twitter, you'll forget how to talk to real people!" (My great aunt)

And this is just for fun:

Our readings this week reminded me Professor Higgens's great library in My Fair Lady... and of his amazing diction. :)

Bib #2

CCC 1985-87 

A Selected Bibliography on Computers in Composition: An Update

Helen J. Schwartz and Lillian S. Bridwell-Bowles

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 38, No. 4 (Dec., 1987) (pp. 453-457)

Updated bibliography of sources for software and word processing in computers and composition.  Software still dominates the conversation and concern for computers in the classroom.

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Computer Conversations: E-Mail and Writing Instruction

Joyce Kinkead

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 38, No. 3 (Oct., 1987) (pp. 337-341)

This is the first appearance of a discussion about email. Much of the interchange discusses the use of email for peer critique/review and the author notes that students (for the most part) prefer email exchanges for peer review as they believe it affords for a more fair and honest assessment since there is no pressure of being in the physical company of the reviewee.  The author also notes that the "electronic tutor" implemented via email in their writing center fosters written communication.

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Faculty Training in Computers and Composition: Warnings and Recommendations

Laurence Tobin

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 38, No. 2 (May, 1987) (pp. 195-198)

Despite so much talk of computers in composition, many instructors still have skepticism about their use (Tobin 195).  Tobin offers an anecdotal account of his first experience with faculty training and from that he provides suggestions for future faculty workshops: 1) make workshops optional, 2) focus only on what's needed from the word processor/program, 3) promote word processors/programs as having potential for possibilities, not being the ultimate truth and future of the discipline, and 4) have instructors learn by working with a piece of their own work. Note: The 4th suggestion is reminiscent of suggestions made elsewhere about ideal scenarios for teaching students to work with word processors.

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Computer-Based Writing: Navigating the Fluid Text

James V. Catano

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 36, No. 3 (Oct., 1985) (pp. 309-316)

Catano conducts a study on the effect of word processors on writing/revision.  According to Catano, a "fluid text" refers to composing with or without computers/word processors.  The article/study concludes by suggesting that word processors are both good and bad for the revision process and fluidity of a text and ultimately it hinges on how the word processor is used in the process.

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Student Writers and Word Processing: A Preliminary Evaluation

Jeanette Harris

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 36, No. 3 (Oct., 1985) (pp. 323-330)

Harris identifies a gap in current work on computers and revision, noting that revision has not been well-defined.  She distinguishes between editing, proofing, and revision in order to develop her definition of revision.  This pilot study examines the effect of word processing on revision, specifically asking if word processors increase students' revision processes.  The study concludes that word processors do not increase the revision process but are great anyway.

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Applied Word Processing: Notes on Authority, Responsibility, and Revision in a Workshop Model

Ronald A. Sudol

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 36, No. 3 (Oct., 1985) (pp. 331-335)

Yet another study of revision and word processing this time with an emphasis on workshop models.  Author primarily publishes in speech communication and rhetoric.

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Computers and Basic Writers

Dawn Rodrigues

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 36, No. 3 (Oct., 1985) (pp. 336-339)

Rodrigues observes the way basic writers are affected by word processors and finds that basic writers enjoy and work well with word processing technology. The author notes specifically that BW students reported an increase in concentration and sense of community through the use of word processing.  Rodrigues suggests that students should not learn word processing outside of the English classroom but instead learn it together/in conjunction with practicing composition.

Conversations 85:

Reply by Bruce Petersen, Cynthia Selfe, and Billie Wahlstrom

Bruce Petersen, Cynthia Selfe and Billie Wahlstrom

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 36, No. 3 (Oct., 1985) (pp. 347-348)

Challenges to CAI design are beginning to emerge.  Critiques include: inflexibility with audience (sense of audience) and that programming could get "messy" with "basement programmers."  These critiques are acknowledged yet defended by a reinforcement that it is good for the humanities to build a relationship with those in computer science to ensure the best programs are developed for composition.

87 Reviews: 

Writing at Century’s End: Essays on Computer-Assisted Composition – edited by Lisa Gerrard

Writing On-Line: Using Computers in the Teaching of Writing – Collins and Sommers (85)

Rodrigues & Rodrigues (86) Teaching Writing with a Word Processor, Grades 7-13

85 Reviews:

Walter Ong: “Technologizing of the Word”

Halpern & Liggett: “Computers and Composing: How the New Technologies are Changing Writing”

Underwood: “Linguistics, Computers, and the Language Teacher: A Communicative Approach” 

College English 85-87

Nothing

Computers and Composition 85-87

Planning and Implementing the Right Word Processing System
Thomas Brownell
Computers and Composition Vol 2. No. 2 1985

Brownell offers a resounding: yes! To the use of word processors in the classroom and enthusiastically walks the reader through essential features of the ideal processor and some “must-have” software.  Interestingly enough, at the end of the article, Brownell cautions the reader about getting too involved with the composing process on a word processor and warns that “Machines can be abused and abusive. In any mechanical environment, human beings must be the masters” (Brownell).  He notes that combining “old” processes (writing by hand) with the new (copying to the word processor” will yield results that keep the individual from harming their eyes and spending, in general, too much time in front of a screen.

Marking Papers and Record Keeping for Apple Users
Robert Lucking
Computers and Composition Vol. 2 #2  1985

Lucking makes an early note that the biggest reason for instructors seeking to use software for grading papers is to expedite the process of providing lengthy commentary.  Throughout the article, Lucking offers the benefits of ApplewriterII – a new program that makes easier the process of inserting instructor text files into a student’s paper at the appropriate points. Ultimately, Lucking suggests that instructors who are interested in the future of computers and composition should keep informed about the new software available to them.

The Continuing Challenge: Computers and Writing
JoAnn Zimmer

Computers and Composition Vol. 2 No. 3  1985

Zimmer outlines an account of three English instructors and an Ontario University who have taken up the challenge of not only using computers but also creating CAI for their composition classes.  This account reaffirms the dominant thought in the discipline at the time – that CAI meant instructors should learn how to create programs themselves as the programs would be the sole future of composition.  Zimmer concludes that while the process of developing and implementing software for their program has been daunting, it is ultimately rewarding and worth the effort.

Microcomputers and Writing
Elizabeth A. Sommers
James L. Collins

Computers and Composition Vol. 2 No. 4  1985

Sommers and Collins begin their article by expressing their belief (one that has been echoed elsewhere) that microcomputers are effective so long as instructors do not forget that they are to teach writing and not word processing.  Sommers and Collins argue that microcomputers are misused when they allow instructors to insert “stock” comments on papers and when certain software programs threaten to skew the writing process within a decentralized classroom. Finally, it is suggested that “Microcomputers are no panacea…not a single bit of research tells us yet that writing quality improves when word processing is used for instruction purposes. These points are worth some serious thought and further research” (Sommers, Collins).

Fighting in the Computer Revolution: A Field Report from the Walking Wounded
Cynthia L. Selfe
Billie J. Wahlstrom

Computers and Composition Vol.2 No. 4  1985

Self and Wahlstrom offer a narrative about their experiences with learning to master computers and the ongoing struggle to combine the values of “traditional humanists” and computer scientists.  Seemingly a trend in the field at the time, English instructors see the need to bridge a perceived gap between the language/values/culture/practices of those who specialize in computer science and program-writing and those who consider themselves to have traditional values in the instructions of English.

The Effects of Word Processing on the Quality of Writing: Fact or Illusion?
Carole H. McAllister

Computers and Composition Vol. 2 No. 4  August 1985

An interesting study about the perception of writing (in terms of grading) thought to be composed with a word processor versus without. The study sought to determine if knowledge that work was composed on a word processor would alter the grader’s perception of reality. Ultimately the study concluded that work composed via word processors did, in fact, receive higher grades. Although, McAllister notes that “Unfortunately, attempts to explain this effect in terms of inferences the subjects made either about the writing of the paper (e.g., it must have been rewritten more than usual) or about the student composer (e.g., he or she had the initiative to learn to use a word processor) proved unsuccessful.”

What Does User-Friendly Mean Anyway?
Billie J. Wahlstrom

Computers and Composition Vol. 3 No. 1 Nov. 1985

Arguing that the concept of “user-friendly” should be attributed to form and not content, Wahlstrom makes note of the fact that up until this point, the term “user-friendly” has been attributed to both aspects of software: its form and its content. Wahlstrom concludes by indicating that until we are clear about the distinction between form and content, we will not be able to progress further in our understanding of CAI.  Wahlstrom also draws a parallel between form/content of software to that of the “bookness”/material nature of a book versus its content/text generated by the author.

Word Processing in First-Year Comp
Wayne Moore

Computers and Composition Vol. 3 No. 1 Nov. 1985

Responding to William Marling’s claim that the best place to introduce the use of microcomputers is in advanced English courses. Moore suggests that first-year composition is a better place to introduce computers because FYC students stand to gain the most from their use of microcomputers.

Integrating Computers into the Writing Classroom: Some Guidelines
John S. Dinan, Rebecca Gagnon, and Jennifer Taylor
Computers and Composition Vol. 3 No. 1 March 1986

This article is a continuation of the conversation regarding the integration of computers into the writing classroom.  Obviously concerns still remain for the student of the writing class who is also asked to master the word processor and its nuances/software.  Suggestions are to 1) ease the student into the use of the word processor and 2) never losing the focus of the class – that of the student and their writing/writing process.  These solutions are reminiscent of other concerns and conclusions in the field at this time.

Xenophobic Word Processing
Lee Roger Taylor, Jr.
Computers and Composition Vol. 3 No. 3 August 1986

Taylor offers an interesting take on the zealous devotion to word programs that developed during the mid-1980s. According to the author’s anecdotal evidence, instructors are seemingly unwilling to venture outside of the word processing program they have adopted/learned with – be it wordperfect or wordstar to name a few.  Taylor concludes by stating “What I do want to emphasize is that we should as ‘composing’ teachers learn different composing methods--different methods of the composing process.” 

The One-Computer Classroom
Richard B. Larsen

Computers and Composition Vol. 4 No. 1 Nov. 1986

Here, Larsen responds to the issue of a dramatic lack of funding for most English departments to construct computer classrooms in order to teach using word processors/CAI software.  Larsen’s solution is to outfit a classroom with a high-tech projector, further justifying his case by stating “Computer projection can be used for a larger variety of computer-specific purposes than a small quantity of microcomputers can, even if the micros are linked with a local-area network. For one thing, LANs remain a developing technology, still fraught with glitches in any configuration beyond mere monitor-image (as opposed to true-data) sharing; for another, LANs will not serve as many students at the same time as a projector will; for yet another, they are far from being cost effective, running in some cases up to $6500-8000 for just the networking equipment and software.”

Creating a Computer-Supported Writing Lab: Sharing Stories and Creating Vision
Cynthia L. Selfe

Computers and Composition Vol. 4. No. 2 April 1987

Selfe details her experience with creating the computer-supported writing lab at Michigan Tech University. Her article concludes with observations that it may always be difficult to run a computer lab as computers will be seen as dehumanizing and students will resent having to pay an additional lab fee in order to use them.  She notes that “Many of these difficulties will never be resolved. Computer facilities often function as black holes: consuming as much money, energy, and time as a faculty are willing to commit.”

Perceptions of Word Processing in Composition Classes: First-year and Upper-level Students Compared
Linda L. Maik, Thomas A. Maik

Computers and Composition Vol. 4 No. 3 August 1987

This article reflects a progression in the ongoing conversation about whether it’s best to introduce computers to first-year students or advanced students of composition. This particular survey found that both students in first-year as well as those in advanced composition found value in the word processing tools and found them useful even despite the limited knowledge of those in first-year composition courses.

Written Communication 84-87

Editing Strategies and Error Correction in Basic Writing
Deborah McCutchen, Glynda Hull, William L. Smith
Written Communication 4 (2) April 1987

Two studies investigated the editing strategies used by college basic writing (BW) students as they went about correcting sentence-level errors in controlled editing tasks. One study involved simple word processing, and a second involved an interactive editor that supplemented the word-processing program, giving students feedback on their correction attempts and helping them focus on the errors. In both studies BW students showed two clearly different editing strategies, a consulting strategy in which grammatical rules were consulted and an intuiting strategy in which the sound of the text was assessed for “goodness” in a rather naturalistic way. Students consistently used their intuiting strategies more effectively; however, errors requiring consulting strategies showed a larger improvement after intervention by the interactive editor. Cognitive implications of the editing strategies are discussed in terms of the requisite knowledge involved in successful application of each strategy.

Containment

Somewhere in the middle of Adams and Barker's "A New Model for the Study of the Book," I began to think about my comic book collection.  The more I thought about the book as an artifact, as a physical thing that is part of so many "themes" of its creation - production, reception, survival to name  a few - I realized that, for me, comic books (graphic novels, specifically) are the best connection I have to these various stages of a book's life.

At first, I began to think about libraries full of books and that thought didn't really resonate with me - it left me feeling bored and rather antagonistic about physical books and all the work (mental and physical) that had undoubtedly gone into their creation. Then, seemingly out of nowhere, I thought about the comic book store. Yes, *the* comic book store - the one I used to frequent in that beautiful year off between undergrad and grad school when all I did was work, ride my bike, and read comics. 

Wednesday was new comic day, and occasionally if that week was particularly light for me, I would walk up and down the tall rows of graphic novels and study the bindings, waiting patiently for one to pop out at me - one always did.

A small snap shot of a comic shelf in my home

You see, the binding of comic books tell a story in-and-of themselves. It's unfortunate that many may take this for granted, simply suggesting "well, that's the nature of a book full of pictures." But if we consider the question of survival and its link to reception, what book has more staying-power: the standard novels we see stocked on library shelves today, or the graphic novel and the wild storybook painting it creates along the walls it lines?

Now, I will be the first to admit that there could very well be a large segment of book history that I am unaware of - one that perhaps details a time in which book cover art, bindings, and size were far more playful and could perhaps rival today's graphic novels as physical artifacts that make you long for their tactile nature.  But for now, I'm operating off of what I see every day in book stores and in libraries - the shelves that make me want to take a nap, not a journey into fiction or non-fiction. 

Getting back to the question of survival, graphic novels most certainly fulfill what Adams and Barker call the "three stages in the life of books that have survived" (61) and interestingly enough, many comics pass right from the first stage to the third - rarely seeing the threat of disappearance. I make this claim on the basis of two reasons: 1) comic books reflect larger story "arcs" which tends to make each individual collection or single issue just as important as the next and 2) some comics are what is referred to as a "first appearance" which essentially makes that particular comic book that lock box containing a character's very essence - their inception.  In the comic book world, "first appearances" are cherished as if a reprint doesn't even contain the same story, the same moment - only those few, rare artifacts do - and the faded, falling-apart pages are a reflection of the time that character has spent there, growing and expanding its essence over decades but still somehow never leaving that early book. Obviously this is the third stage - the realization that "the book is desirable as an object" (63) and even so it still seems that both stages one and three are never far apart in the world of graphic novels.

Amazing Spiderman #129 - The first appearance of the Punisher

I share the above image with you as an example of my story (and assessment of book studies as it relates to graphic novels).  The Amazing Spiderman issue #129 is the first time the Punisher character ever appeared in comics.  Note that the book itself has been encased in a heavy (albeit you can't tell that detail here) plastic - it is now a "graded" copy of 9.8 (near-mint condition).  A book of this caliber is quite expensive.  I purchased this book for an ex-boyfriend of mine when I was young enough to be that stupid.  We broke up about a year later, and sometimes I still wonder where the Punisher is... and if he's doing ok inside of that heavy plastic, still expanding his legacy across the world of comics and film.

Bib #1

'82 - '84  : CCC, College English, Computers and Composition

The Word Processor and the Writer: A Systems Analysis
Charles Moran
Computers and Composition 2(1)  November 1984

The writer already interacts with several “systems” and introducing the word processor only increases that number by one – essentially, there are more affordances for word processing (in which this author uses his own anecdotal evidence of that – the speed with which he is able to write his thoughts down) than there are drawbacks/limitations. The author also notes that it is important to regard the “kind” of writer who approaches the technology – as their pre-existing qualities will determine what they allow the technology to do for them.

Selling the Skeptic: Computers in the Humanities
Carmen Cramer
English Department, University of Southwestern Louisiana
Computers and Composition V. 4 August 1984

In her article, Cramer responds to the common anxiety of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) during the early years of the computer within English departments. Carmen admits to once being a skeptic herself, but suggests that if instructors are given the opportunity to become familiar with computers slowly and in an intimate setting, they will soon be comfortable with them. Carmen also suggests that the "practical" applications, if introduced to instructors, will entice them to take on more work with computers. For instructors who are open to it, more whimsical and light-hearted approaches to computers will suffice - specifically, "...the letter writing capacity of computers. With all the imaginative possibilities of code names, colleagues can send secret messages to each other" (Carmen). 

Calls for introducing non-threatening approaches to introducing computers to English instructors.

Grading Essays on a Microcomputer

William Marling

College English

Vol. 46, No. 8 (Dec., 1984) (pp. 797-810)

As the title suggests, Marling's essay focuses on the emergent concern of grading essays on computers.  At this time, computers were seen primarily as (potential) tools for teaching students grammar/mechanics as well as an aid in the invention process of composition. Marling details his research involving a program he created for microcomputers and his experiences using it to grade both beginning and advanced writers in different English courses. Ultimately, Marling sees more advantages for using computers for composing (specifically for advanced writers) than for grading.  According to Marling, two "fundamental problems" exist for grading using a mircrocomputer: the stationary nature of computers/their placement in public spaces and the lack of knowledge about how students learn to write using microcomputers.

Teaching Writing with Computer Aids

Helen J. Schwartz

College English

Vol. 46, No. 3 (Mar., 1984) (pp. 239-247)

Helen Schwartz reports on her experiences incorporating CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) and word-processing into her freshmen English courses. Schwartz notes that the practices her students perform on Apple microcomputers can be replicated on other systems and in other forms. Schwartz notes early on what seems to be an increasingly-popular ideology, that "word processing can change the way students write and their attitudes towards writing" (Schwartz 239). Students in Shcwartz's classes use various programs to practice and execute various parts of the writing process - programs such as TOPOI (utilizing Aristoltian "topics) and BURKE (utilizing Kenneth Burke's key terms) are used to assist students in the invention process by asking them various questions about their writing.  Ultimately, Schwartz calls for teachers to embrace word processing programs and suggests that although some programs she details in her article are unavailable, it is easy to adapt classroom practices to what's available. 

Untitled (Reviews)

Francis A. Hubbard

College English

Vol. 46, No. 2 (Feb., 1984) (pp. 128-133)

In her review of three books that detail various topics/approaches to word-processing in the English classroom, Hubbard aptly notes that one can be "accurate or up-to-date but never both" (Hubbard 128). Only one of the books reviewed is given credit for being useful beyond the lifespan of the programs it details - that credit is given to William Zissner's Writing With a Word Processor.  Hubbard notes that Zissner's attention to the word (and not the processor) and the effects on the person makes his text more useful to scholars in English as he does not suggest that word processing is the future, but that it merely holds "hope" for the discipline. The two other books reviewed here are: Fluegelman and Hewes's Writing in the Computer Age: Word Processing Skills for Every Writer (1983) and McWilliams's The Word Processing Book: A Short Course in Computer Literacy (1983).

Computers and Composition Instruction: An Update

William Wresch

College English

Vol. 45, No. 8 (Dec., 1983) (pp. 794-799)

Wresch provides an about what has happened since his last article on the subject of computers and composition (a year ago).  His previous article (also appearing in College English) detailed his contention with the development and implementation of computer programs that only sought to correct grammar rather than assist students with the writing process.  Wresch sees that the field is finding increased pressure from Deans to “go high tech” and that there are more programs being written - many of the programs written since his first article cover a wide range of writing concerns and some of those are detailed here. 

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Understanding and Evaluating: The Humanist as Computer Specialist

Joseph H. Bourque

College English

Vol. 45, No. 1 (Jan., 1983) (pp. 67-73)

In this article, Joseph Bourque argues “the value of computer-related work as demonstration of professional development and tenure..." (63) Bourque begins by lamenting the disconnect between his humanist disposition and the demands of the field as they trend in the direction of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).  Almost begrudgingly, Bourque details his research of CAI and what implications he believes computer programs have for the humanities/humanist.  Bourque suggests that "the process of writing software is not fundamentally different from writing an article" (70).  From there, the author also claims that in order to utilize computer software programs within the classroom, instructors must write (create) them and since this process is just as - if not more - intensive than composing a scholarly article in their discipline, English departments must "adjust their faculty evaluation criteria and reward those who do the work" (72).

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Computer-Based Invention: Its Place and Potential

Raymond J. Rodrigues and Dawn Wilson Rodrigues

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1984) (pp. 78-87)

The article considers computer-based invention programs as made prominent by scholars such as William Wresch and Helen Schwartz and their current and future potential in the instruction of English. Rodrigues and Rodrigues state that "computer-based invention programs like these promise to help students understand and use heuristics for invention with more facility than typical classroom instruction allows them to develop" (78).  The authors note two benefits: individualization of instruction on invention as well as time-saving. The authors also cite Shaughnessy's claim that basic writing students have difficulties putting their thoughts into words and suggest that computer-based invention programs can assist students in articulating and revising their thoughts by acting as "verbal playmates" (84). Ultimately, it is the "recursive nature of the writing process" that is seen as the biggest benefactor of an increasing prevalence of computers in composition instruction.

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Computers in English Class: Finally beyond Grammar and Spelling Drills

William Wresch

College English

Vol. 44, No. 5 (Sep., 1982) (pp. 483-490)

Wresch makes note of the fact that the dominant use of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) in English courses deals with "drilling" exercises for grammar.  While Wresch notes that this is problematic, he suggests that it is not due to limitations of the computer itself, but rather the short-sightedness of instructors in terms of what CAI can be/do.  Wresch notes that one reason for so many programs that only deal with grammar instruction/correction could be that programs that go beyond these goals require both more programming knowledge as well as more content knowledge.  These "advanced" programs are "dialogue systems" that are meant to act as a supplemental instruction for students rather than a replacement of their instructor. Wresch gives three accounts of programs used at different institutions to illustrate his claims about the future and benefit of CAI that goes beyond skill and drill grammar instruction.

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Computer-Assisted Instruction and the Writing Process: Questions for Research and Evaluation

Bruce T. Petersen, Cynthia L. Selfe and Billie J. Wahlstrom

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1984) (pp. 98-101)

This interchange deals with the question of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and how it is to be assessed within departments in order to determine its effectiveness and future potential.  Scholars involved in this interchange agree that extensive research is necessary in order to determine to what degree CAI will be used in English departments and how it will be used for instruction.  Several questions are posed about CAI and the writing process: Questions for evaluating the effectiveness of programs, criterion for choosing existing software for the composition classroom, and suggestions for evaluating instruments. Ultimately, in order for the "maximum potential" for software to be realized, critical examinations must be undertaken in order to ensure effectiveness. 

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A Selected Bibliography on Computers in Composition
Helen J. Schwartz and Lillian S. Bridwell
College Composition and Communication
Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1984) (pp. 71-77)

A bibliography detailing resources for instructors who are interested in using computers for their composition courses.  Citations include various articles in journals outside of composition and some citations within the field. Schwartz and Birdwell also note which articles are most useful for a range of instructors: novice to expert with computer and computer-based instruction. 

Note: Diane Langston in RSQ about 2 years later wrote an article referring to this as a reflection of an “old paradigm” in “computer aided invention.”

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The Computer as Stylus and Audience

Colette A. Daiute

College Composition and Communication

Vol. 34, No. 2 (May, 1983) (pp. 134-145)

In her article, Daiute addresses the physiological and psychological effects that writing has had on people for as long as they have been composing documents.  Daiute details the ways that computers can ease both the physiological and psychological pressures and constraints felt by writers - everything from speed of composition to short-term memory in revision. Daiute notes that the "text editor eliminates the spacial and aesthetic barriers that are special inhibitors of the revising activity" (136). Most notable is Daiute's assessment that contrary to popular belief, "computer users tend to feel in control of the writing process" (142).

References of interest:

Emig: Composing process of twelfth graders
Perl: Composing process of unskilled college workers
Elbow: Writing without teachers

Shaughnessy “Errors and Expectations” 

Colette A. Daiute and Robert P. Taylor"Computers and the Improvement of Writing," in Proceedings of the Association of Computing Machinery (New York: Association of Comput- ing Machinery, 1981).

Notes: Many references are articles on editing and revision processes as well as issues of memorization and grammar.